1 The demand for information
on transport issues in rural areas in developing countries
There is virtually no literature specifically about the demand for
information on transport issues in rural areas in developing countries,
although there is much tacit knowledge (Colombia
Case Study).
There is a substantial volume of knowledge about transport needs
and much detailed case-study information is available in the literature
or on web sites (The World Bank,
Transport Links), but there
is little information incorporating analysis or synthesis at regional,
national or international levels. The World Bank, and other sites
also provide much useful information on how to assess transport needs
(Lebo and Schelling, in progress).
There is a general assumption about the demand for and value of
information for policy makers and practitioners (DFID
Transport Newsletter May 2001), and information is recognised
as vital for learning about the impact of development interventions
in general (Thin, Good & Hodgson 1997).
The dissemination of information is one of the aims of many of the
institutions working in this sector and the importance of knowledge
sharing is emphasised in their institutional strategies (IFRTD,
DFID). Some of these institutions
have undertaken an analysis of the information needs of their target
audiences to develop their information strategies (IFRTD,
DFID). However, these are only
described in internal documents and have not been made available to
the public. Most of these strategies seem to be based on the outputs
from transport research programmes, rather than an assessment of the
information needs of potential users (TRL
2000). There are some new initiatives on information sharing in
rural transport issues, which could contribute substantially to any
future dissemination strategies (World
Interchange Network, SUSTRAN,
IFRTD).
The literature and information that is available tends to focus
on transport policy-planning processes to reduce poverty. There are
many analyses of information constraints in the appraisal of rural
transport projects, for example, the lack of adequate economic, social
and political information to inform traditional cost-benefit evaluation
of transport investments. This is used by some authors to justify
the development of alternative models based on local information (Balla
2000, Van de Walle 2000, Lebo
and Schelling 2001). There are also many methodologies, guides
and articles describing the kind of information needed for transport
planning, for example, sectoral approaches (EU
2002); participatory rural planning (ILO/SDC
1997); integrated rural accessibility planning (Dixon-Fyle
1998, Dingen 2000); and for environmental
impact assessment of transport projects (UN
2001).
Most authors agree that information needs are highly context specific,
and an attempt to systematise knowledge about information needs (based
on IFRDT’s Information Strategy) and provision (based on an internet
search) failed to identify any general gaps and opportunities. However,
there does seem to be more information about roads than other modes
of transport, and more on transport technology than social and economic
factors.
2. Information and knowledge in livelihoods in rural
areas
Information and communication are critical elements of livelihoods
in rural areas. Poor people need information to make decisions on
livelihood strategies, and the institutions with which they interact
need information to inform the policies and processes that support
(or undermine) those strategies.
Rural communities, their institutions, government and other agencies
all have well developed local communication and information networks,
and many people still trust what they can hear and see first hand
above other information. Television and radio can reach a wide audience
in many developing countries and access to the internet is growing
throughout the developing world. The current emphasis on extending
internet access however, runs the risk of losing communities rich,
vital and experiential knowledge, which has always circulated in local
informal networks, and new hybrid communication systems are needed
which can integrate existing information and networks, to inform and
be informed by the internet.
Improved communication and information alone however are not sufficient
for improved livelihoods. Stakeholder participation in decision-making
processes, and building multi-sectoral collaboration and partnerships
between them are also crucially important. This wide range of stakeholders,
from rural communities to international support agencies, all have
their own specific information needs and delivery preferences. Sustainable
development and the elimination of poverty also demand attention to
national political economic and social processes, international relations
and trade.
A recent study of information needs to support rural livelihoods
in developing countries identified the information needs of stakeholders
at all levels:
Rural poor households need information about the availability
of inputs and services, market prices, and general information about
the institutional and policy context.
Producer organisations need information on opportunities and constraints
in the rural sector.
Local NGOs need information about existing livelihood opportunities
and constraints.
Local government needs information about the local status in all
sectors, their own and other’s services, opportunities and
poverty.
Private sector organisations need information about markets, opportunities
and local regulations.
National NGOs need information about policies, institutions and
decision-making processes.
National government needs information to monitor public programmes
and trends in production and poverty.
International Donor agencies need national-level and international
information on production, poverty and governance.
The study identified seven key recommendations to improve information
and communication in rural areas:
Determine who should pay: Information for agricultural and rural
development was until recently considered a global public good
to be made freely available to all, but donors and governments
are increasingly relying on the private sector. There are some
examples where rural communities are prepared to pay for information,
but poorer farmers often lose out because they can not afford
to pay. More work is urgently needed to explore this issue, to
develop a new consensus on who should pay for information for
poorer farmers.
Ensure equitable access: There is substantial evidence that
if new information systems do not reach the poor, existing social,
ethnic, gender, economic and political disparities may be exacerbated.
Television and radio remain much more widely accessible than the
internet, especially in Africa. There are good examples in Africa
and Asia where new, internet-based information services have had
positive livelihoods and governance outcomes for the poor. The
challenge is to apply these pilot approaches more widely and to
ensure information is also integrated into, accessible through,
and compliments more traditional media.
Promote local content: Rural communities trust endogenous and
local information more than exogenous information, and are unlikely
to adopt external solutions, without substantial discussion of
locally specific examples. Improved access to locally-relevant
information is essential for poverty reduction. Supporting communication
between local institutions may be more important than providing
new content from external sources.
Build on existing systems: Many information systems are overly
ambitious, overly complex, and over-designed. They tend to overlook
the fundamental organisational processes and institutional incentives
that encourage people to use them. Experience shows that the most
effective systems are simple and modest, and build on existing
databases and data collecting routines to provide specific information
to specific users, to inform decisions for which they are accountable.
Build capacity: There is a critical need to build capacity at
all levels – international, national and local. It is particularly
important to strengthen local capacity in information collection,
storage and dissemination in order to bridge the gap between information
providers and users.
Use realistic technologies: Information and communication initiatives
for development are expanding exponentially. Most promote the
latest technology, leading to a perpetual race to keep up. It
is essential to be more realistic. In developing countries the
most sustainable approach is to use a combination of old and new
technologies and to link them, though there are few good examples.
Build knowledge partnerships: The new ‘network’ age
makes it possible to build dynamic ‘knowledge partnerships’
between individuals and organisations at any level. Multidisciplinary
knowledge partnerships that can develop mechanisms to deal with
the problems of connectivity and information literacy at community
level, and link with national and international systems, offer
the potential for a dynamic two-way flow of information at every
level.
3. Information and knowledge in policy processes
Traditionally, policy-making has been viewed as a linear process,
where policy makers identify a problem, then explore various possible
solutions based on existing knowledge, or by commissioning research,
decide on the best option, then establish the policy environment to
implement it. The literature on policy processes is now shifting towards
a more dynamic and complex view that emphasises a process shaped by
multiple relations and reservoirs of knowledge, where the political
context, the actors (networks, organisations and individuals), the
message, and media all exert influence.
According to political scientists, the policy process is essentially
a political process, driven and constrained at least as much by political
factors as by knowledge. The literature on anthropology describes
how policy makers (and other people) are influenced by ‘discourses’
or ‘paradigms’, and tend to relate new ideas with them.
Information or knowledge outside the current paradigm, or the dominant
discourse, are unlikely to influence policy decisions, unless they
contribute to an emerging discourse which is in the ascendant. It
is interesting that the current paradigm of ‘the information
age’ has politicised information itself. Information, and its
generation and use, is no longer neutral. Information is often described
in political terms as, for example, ‘strengthening the interests
of developed countries’ or ‘contributing to the digital
divide’, or (more positively) ‘empowering the poor’.
Multiple actors participate in the policy process through a wide
range of institutions and networks. Actors perceive, remember and
use ideas in different ways, and various models have been developed
to describe this. Economists developed the rational economistic or
cost/benefit model, and behavioural psychologists the stimulus-response
model. More recent attempts to explain why some ideas succeed and
others fail have tended to emphasis ‘irrational’ factors
such as culture and values (of both organisations and individuals),
the part played by informal and ‘non-linear’ decision-making
processes, and the role of emotional dynamics such as anxiety and
memory (again, both in organisations and individuals). Studies in
organisational management and social psychology have revealed that
individuals and organisations are unlikely to easily adopt new ideas,
which affect their identity and values, without a crisis or very strong
pressure. They are likely to be much more receptive to ideas and information
which only require changes in, for example, operational procedures,
practices and resource distribution.
The degree of attention paid to circulating ideas is also determined
by the way those ideas are presented. There are many academic fields
that provide interesting contributions in this regard, including the
literature on interpersonal communication, advocacy and marketing
communication, media communication and IT, and knowledge management
and research relevance. These fields have gradually shifted away from
various linear theories of communication (sender – message –
channel – recipient) towards more interactive models. The focus
on interaction implies that there is no longer a hierarchical and
clearly defined relationship between the ‘sender’ and ‘recipient’,
but rather that both parties in a communication process occupy sender
and receiver roles at different stages. Moreover, both parties contribute
to the content and meaning of the message. In other words, the message
is not fixed, but changes as it circulates between the different parties,
since different actors will understand and respond to the message
in different ways.
4. Gaps in understanding of the
demand for information on transport
While there is much tacit knowledge, there is little explicit information
available in the literature or on web sites describing the demand
for information on transport issues from any of the key stakeholders.
Most of the current information providers are donors, research institutions
or networking organisations, who have themselves decided (more or
less scientifically) what the information users need.
Further work is necessary to identify transport information needs
more clearly. This could be through capturing, codifying and publishing
existing tacit information; through interviews with key players and/or
analysis of case studies; and/or further research (as is planned within
TRISP).
